Topics on this page:
1- Characteristics of the spiritual monastic life: A conversation between: St. Macarius the Egyptian and Father Matthew the Poor.
2- Theosis and Spiritual warfare: A conversation between the Early Orthodox Tradition and the contemporary Coptic theology.
3- The Coptic Community under the Ottoman Rule (1517-1798).
3- The Coptic Community under the Ottoman Rule (1517-1798).
4- Characteristics of Christian Piety: A conversation between: St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna and St. Macarius the Egyptian.
5- Wadi n’Natrun and the origins of Monasticism.
By Dr. Tharwat Maher Nagib, PhD, Regent University, VA
"Characteristics of the spiritual monastic life"
St. Macarius Father Matthew the Poor
Adam was created in "the image and likeness of God", but this image was corrupted by sin (12:1)[22].The soul lost her image and because of Adam 's disobedience, "death reigned over every soul, and defaced every image of Adam " (11:4, 5)[23]. Through Christ 's work this "Heavenly image" (11:6) can be restored. This image was representing the "state of Purity" (). Also, it was representing Adam 's authority over the creatures. Through Christ 's work "Adam may again be king over death and lord of the creatures" (11:6).
Father Matthew the Poor is the author for 187 published books[39]. His writings include voluminous texts on Biblical exegesis, Ecclesiastical rites, spiritual and theological matters[40]. His disciples, after his death, have another huge number of his unpublished material (232 articles and books)[41]. His writings are considered as a restoration of the Early Fathers Tradition[42]. Also, his writings formed a new monastic movement. Father Matthew the Poor passed away on June 8, 2006 .
St. Macarius Father Matthew the Poor are sharing many of the basic thoughts but each of them is still having some special understandings. The story of Church History seems to be a developing story which is going in the right way to fulfill His will. Each type of spiritual life completes the others and all of us "may grow up in all things into Him who is the head-Christ -" (Ephesians ).
Bibliography
Burton- Christie Douglas New York , Oxford : Oxford University Rubenson , Samuel St. Macarius St. Macarius Arthur James Mason St. Macarius London Christian Knowledge Vivian , Tim St. Macarius the Spiritbearer: Coptic texts relating to Saint Macarius the Great. Crestwood , New York St. Vladimir Teague , David Roger Rogahn
Egypt Istanbul replaced Egypt Egypt became only one of the followers of the Ottoman Empire . This change affected Egypt Egypt Egypt Egypt
Polycarp wrote to the Philippians to "not neglecting a widow or an orphan or a poor man" (Ph.p.6). Polycarp was giving even to those who came to arrest him "Straight away he ordered them to be given everything they wanted to eat and drink" (M.p.7:2)
Adam was created in "the image and likeness of God", but this image was corrupted by sin (12:1)[20]. The soul lost her image and because of Adam's disobedience, "death reigned over every soul, and defaced every image of Adam" (11:4, 5). Through Christ's work this "Heavenly image" (11:6) can be restored. This image was representing the "state of Purity" (15:25). Also, it was representing Adam's authority over the creatures. Through Christ 's work "Adam may again be king over death and lord of the creatures" (11:6)[21].
Christ is the "heavenly Bridegroom" who has espoused the soul for "mystical Divine fellowship" (15:2). "For the soul was fitted for communion with the heavenly Bridegroom, and mingles with the heavenly One" (12:15). The service of the Spirit is performed "secretly by the inner man" (15:5). The Holy Ghost writes the "mysteries of heaven" upon the tables of the heart (). Visions are occurred sometimes during the prayer (15:5). Also, to be caught away into the coming age is an experience can be occurred (17:4). Macarius wrote about one of the brothers who was taken captive by Divine power, caught away and saw the city of Jerusalem St. Macarius
St. Macarius Arthur James Mason St. Macarius London Christian Knowledge
By Dr. Tharwat Maher Nagib, PhD, Regent University, VA
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| St. Macarius the Egyptian |
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| Father Matthew the Poor |
A conversation between:
Introduction:
"The Spirit Himself bears witness for us with groanings which can not be uttered that we are a living part from a living history."[1]
In one of his classical epistles to his disciples, Father Matthew the Poor wrote these words which reflect a very significant and important perspective for reading Church History. This important perspective is the perspective of the continuity of this very precious history. Father Matthew the Poor understood his monastic life and his disciples' monastic life as a continuation of the monastic life of the Early Desert Fathers.
In spite of representing this perspective of the continuity, he also represented a perspective of the uniqueness. About his perspective of the uniqueness he wrote that he has a basic concept in his spiritual life. This concept can be briefed in that "my spiritual life has to be authentic and original"[2]. He did not want to be a copy from any one of the saints whatever these saints' greatness was. He affirmed that if he becomes a copy from anyone, he will be out of God's purpose for his life.[3] According to his writings, these two perspectives, the continuity and the uniqueness, work together to shape the spiritual life of Father Matthew the Poor.
In this research, these two perspectives will be examined. It will be examined by comparing the major characteristics of the spiritual life due to Matthew the Poor, (1919- 2006), with the same due to St. Macarius the Egyptian, one of the Early Desert Fathers who lived in the forth century (300-390).
First the research will follow, in details, the major characteristics due to Macarius. It will be followed in details to set the standard which can show the developments that occur according to the Poor.
Through an analytical reading of some texts relating to both, the research will try to answer the question: what are the similarities and the differences in the major characteristics of the two fathers' spiritual monastic life? Also, it will be shown if any development occurred for the same characteristic of the spiritual life from St. Macarius Father Matthew the Poor. By this kind of comparisons, it can be discovered to which degree the contemporary monastic life, at least according to the life of Matthew the Poor, reflects the early desert fathers' monastic life. Then a brief conclusion will follow.
1- The characteristics of spiritual monastic life due to St. Macarius
a- A brief biography:
Abba Macarius the great (300- 390): In the sources, he is called St. Macarius St. Macarius St. Macarius Antony St. Macarius
There are many texts relating to Macarius. Among these texts, there are two Coptic works; "Life of Macarius" by Sarapion and "Virtues of Macarius"[12]. Also, there are 41 sayings attributed to him in the Greek alphabetical collection of "The sayings of the Desert Fathers"[13]. But, the most famous work attributed to him is "The fifty spiritual homilies"[14]. Also, there is an epistle called "To the sons of God", this letter was written to the monks and was found in Greek, Latin, Coptic and Syriac.[15]
b- The major Characteristics of St. Macarius
Through an analytical reading for some selected texts relating to St. Macarius
1- The aim of the ascetic life:
The writings of St. Macarius Antony Adam . These two themes can be noticed through his writings as follows:
i. Christian Perfection (Deification):
Christian perfection, deification ()[18], or communion with the heavenly nature (32:6)[19] is the aim of the Christian life. Perfect Christians are those "who have been permitted…to come very near the King", they are "sons, and lords, and gods" (17:1)[20]. Some times, Macarius called them saints who are cleaned and sanctified in the inner man ().
Loving God seems to be the first step to experience Christian perfection. If a man loves God and gives himself to God, this man can reach the pure love, pure prayer and all that he does may be purely done (). The purity of the heart can be gained through only one way; through Him who was crucified for us (). According to Macarius, the incarnation of the Word is the cause of humans' deification. Because of the incarnation, the heavenly Spirit entered in the humanity and brought Adam "into combination with the God-head" (11:9). In Christ , the humanity can be deified because He gave us to be "partakers of the Spirit of Christ " (15:4) and in "His substance" ().
The Apostles "were perfect" (17:7). Christian perfection is gained "bit by bit" (15:7) and the work of cleansing should be done "little by little" (). Those perfect Christians may be excluded from this kind of life, if they despise the Grace of the Spirit (15:4). The main purpose for giving us the Bible is to teach us to be "partakers of the divine nature" (39)[21].
ii. Restoration of the first image:
One of the manifestations for the restoration of the first authority of Adam , for Macarius and for many of the other Desert Fathers, is to have an authority over the wild beasts and animals.[24] For Macarius, the issue is not only to have an authority over wild animals but also to have an intimacy with them. "Virtues of Macarius" tells a story about healing a huge serpent. This story shows how St. Macarius Christ . Macarius himself tells us:
"I put some spittle on the serpent's face while saying, 'My Lord Jesus Christ, who opened the eyes of the man born blind, have pity on this beast's infirmity and heal it'. When I said this, the fragment fell from its eye and after it bent its neck three times it kissed my feet…It left, giving glory to our Lord Jesus Christ …"[25]
Another story affirms the intimacy with the wild animals, it tells us that:
"Macarius was praying in his cave… while he was praying, the hyena suddenly appeared… she brought out to him her own cubs which had been born blind. He prayed over them and returned them to the hyena with their sight healed. She in tern, by way of thank- offering, brought the man a huge skin of a large ram and laid it at his feet…"[26]
Restoration of the Divine image can be obtained in this life, at least in a primitive way, by the work of the Holy Spirit, so the souls can "regain its proper nature" (17:3). When Adam was in this Divine image, the Word Himself was his clothing and he had an "outward glory with him" (12:6, 7). The Christians who obtain this heavenly raiment now, in this age, clothed their souls; the same raiment will glorify their bodies in the coming age (32:2).
2- Moving toward Christian Perfection:
Repentance, diligence and personal experience with the Holy Spirit are the main degrees toward tasting Christian Perfection for Macarius. These degrees are shown briefly in his letter "To the sons of God"[27]. Personal experience with the Holy Spirit seems to be a stream which walks inside through the internal processes of repentance and diligence. Also, experience with the Holy Spirit seems as a mystical way. This mystical way begins narrow and then becomes wider and wider until reaching Deification. Diligence can be practiced in many ways. Prayer and fasting, Giving, serving God, spiritual warfare and studying the Scripture are considered as general characteristics in practicing diligence. Three of these characteristics are selected to be discussed, according to Macarius, in details as follows:
i. Diligence in Spiritual warfare:
The early Desert Fathers believed that diabolical temptation comes to those who desire to grow spiritually[28]. For Macarius, this is a very important field which the Christian has to practice. "Life of Macarius" tells about many battles with some evil spirits[29]. "A Christian has a twofold warfare set before him, an inward and outward…" (21: Intro.). The outward warfare is visible, in this kind of warfare; the Christian has to fight to not be bound down by the affairs of this life or by the love of the world (21:2). According to Macarius, to sell what we have and distribute to the poor is a very effective way to win this kind of war (11:7). About the inward warfare, it is an invisible warfare. This invisible warfare has two directions. The first is against "the spirits of wickedness themselves" (21:1). And the second is against the indwelling evil which inside the heart, every Christian has "to fight" against this evil (). This indwelling evil produces evil thoughts. Every one has to discover these thoughts. The Holy Spirit is the "Divine Lamp" who helps us to discern these thoughts and to "win the battle" (11:3).
ii. Diligence in Prayer:
The writings relating to Macarius show two types of prayer according to him. The first type can be called the primitive prayer. It can be found in the context of Diligence. The second type is the pure prayer (). Pure prayer can be found only in the context of tasting Christian Perfection and it will be discussed later in this research.
In the context of diligence, the primitive prayer can be found as a very simple prayer. Macarius talked clearly about it as mentioned in "The sayings of Macarius". He answered the question "How should one pray?" as follows:
"It is not necessary to say a lot of words; just stretch your hands up to God and say, 'Lord, as you will and as you desire, lead me.' And if you are afflicted, say, 'Lord, help me.' He knows what is good. He will take pity on us in accordance with His mercies and His love of humanity."[30]
iii. Diligence in Giving:
Giving is very important according to St. Macarius
3- Living Christian Perfection:
After knowing the aim of the ascetic life which is Christian Perfection, and after being diligent to experience this aim, this aim will be tasted as a living style of life. This style of perfect life can be described in the following points:
i. Experience Pure prayer:
When we love God with all of our souls, we can experience the "Pure prayer" (). The pure prayer is this prayer when the mind is "wholly occupied with the Lord" (). In this kind of prayer the mind enters into rest, and may experience vision and knows the Divine mysteries (). This level of prayer seems to be, according to Macarius, a heavenly gift, "a gift of prayer" (17:5).
ii. Tasting the fire of the Holy Spirit:
To receive "The gift of the Spirit", we have to raise our eyes for the heavenly things (11:6). Also, we have to love God, leave all things and preserve in prayer. When we do these things, the Holy Ghost begins to teach us the secrets (). The power of the Holy Spirit is working like a fire; Macarius called this power "heavenly fire of the Godhead" and "Divine fire" (11:1, 2). This Divine fire has two main works inside the faithful souls. The first work belongs to this age. In this age the fire forms, in secret, the "heavenly image upon their humanity" (11:2). The heavenly fire forms this image by clearing off the thorns and sanctifying the soul (). The Divine fire's second work belongs to the coming age. In the coming age the fire will cause the resurrection (11:1).
iii. The mystical life and the supernatural wonders and signs:
The service of the Spirit is performed "secretly by the inner man" (15:5). The Holy Ghost writes the "mysteries of heaven" upon the tables of the heart (). Christ is the "heavenly Bridegroom" who has espoused the soul for "mystical Divine fellowship" (15:2). "For the soul was fitted for communion with the heavenly Bridegroom, and mingles with the heavenly One" ().
Visions occurred sometimes during prayer (15:5). Also, to be caught away into the coming age is an experience that can be tasted (17:4). Macarius wrote about one of the brothers who was taken captive by Divine power, caught away and saw the city of Jerusalem
In homily 48, Macarius wrote to the monks about the divine healing. Christ is the "only true physician and healer". The monk has to believe that Christ can heal his body as He healed his soul. This is the true belief. The "earthly physicians" are for "those who could not yet entrust themselves wholly to God". In the "Life of Macarius" by Sarapion, Sarapion testifies about Macarius' gift of healing,
"Saint Macarius Antony
Also, the visitations of angels were repeated with Macarius. A Cherub visited him many times.[33] Macarius was called "the Cherub's friend" because of these repeating visitations[34].
2- The characteristics of spiritual monastic life due to Father Matthew the Poor:
a- A brief biography:
Father Matthew the Poor (1919- 2006): was an Egyptian Coptic Orthodox monk and a spiritual father of 130 monks in the Monastery of St. Macarius the Great in the Wilderness of Wadi El Natrun, Egypt. He is also a renowned Orthodox theologian and author.[35] Father Matthew the Poor was born on September 20, 1919 , in Banha[36]. He graduated as a pharmacist from Cairo University
In 1948, the Poor entered the monastic life. After living for a few years in the monastery of St. Samuel Father Matta decided to move out into Wadi El Rayan in the late 1950s. After several changes, the Poor and his disciples went to the Monastery of St. Macarius in 1969 to start a new monastic movement which influenced many monastic movements around the world.[38]
b- The major Characteristics of Father Matthew the Poor's spiritual monastic life:
According to the writings of Matthew the Poor, the Characteristics of the spiritual monastic life can be organized in the same three main categories which are shown in the previous section according to Macarius.
1- The aim of the ascetic life:
For the Poor, The incarnation of the Word is the theological interpretation and foundation to understand the aim of the ascetic life[43]. The Divine incarnation is considered as the greatest ascetic work. In the incarnation, the Word Himself took the higher available humility position. He emptied Himself so we can empty ourselves. He emptied himself, taking the very nature of a servant, being made in human likeness to be in union with us. For us, to empty ourselves by the ascetic life is for being, also, in union with Him. The aim of the ascetic life is to be in union with Him. To be in union with Him is equal to the sanctification. The ascetic life itself isn't sufficient to obtain the sanctification. It prepares the soul to gain the gift of the sanctification from God by the Holy Spirit.[44]
The Holy Spirit sanctifies and delivers us to reach the Christian Perfection[45]. The sanctification of the soul, Christian Perfection, is an inner changing and restoration of the first image of Adam [46]. The heavenly Divine image, which the Holy Spirit prints over our souls, makes us truly "Partakers of the Divine nature"[47].
Restoration of the Divine image includes the restoration of the authority over the creation. Being "Partakers of the Divine nature", tasting deification and Christian Perfection or Theosis, is not only the aim of the ascetic life but also it is the aim of the whole Christian life[48].
Repentance and diligence are the two main degrees toward the experience of Union with God. These two degrees couldn’t be understood away of two concepts. The first concept is the human's free will. The second is the work of Grace . The work of Grace is given to us by the work of the Holy Spirit. This formula can be briefed in certain points as follows:
a. Repentance:
First, the Holy Spirit begins to approach the sinner with the holy commands[50]. The Holy Spirit encourages us to repent. If this Divine will meets a free human will for repenting, this is a true repentance experience[51]
b. Diligence: It can be practiced in many ways. Three main characteristics of diligence are selected to be discussed, according to the Poor, in details as follows:
1. Diligence in Prayer:
In his first book, "Orthodox Prayer Life: The Interior Way", Matthew the Poor wrote about the degrees of prayer. He classified the prayer life into two kinds of experience. The first is "the level of prayer" and the second is "beyond the level of prayer". The level of prayer can be experienced through two degrees; Meditation and contemplation. Meditation seems to be by diligence with a secret help from the Holy Spirit. Contemplation is a direct grace from the Spirit. "Beyond the level of prayer" can be experienced through three degrees; Ecstasy, Vision of God and Union with God[52]. Experience Union with God, which is the aim of the ascetic life, in prayer shows how the diligence in the prayer life is very important for Matthew the Poor.
2. Diligence in Giving:
The spiritual man always gives. This is a main spiritual characteristic. The spiritual one who is being filled with the Holy Spirit and doesn't want to give is like a man who tries to keep the fire inside his hand[53]. The life of contemplation can't be lived without giving[54]. Matthew the Poor himself sold everything he had and distributed to the poor[55]. He said that one time he stopped to give his disciples what the Spirit taught him. After some days, he couldn't understand more from the word of God. He understood that this is because he stopped to give. He cut a covenant with himself that he will teach and give every thing the Spirit gave to him.[56]
3. Diligence in Work:
The true spiritual life means reconciliation between work and prayer[57]. The monk doesn't have two kinds of lives, spiritual and practical. He has only one kind of life which represents the main substance for every work and every prayer. We can experience the presence of the Lord in the times of work in a dimension which is higher than that we can experience in the times of meditation[58]. By work, we can discover if we are in union with God or not. The mystic experience for the presence of God in work gives the work its success[59]. The improvement of the work is relating to the spiritual growth[60].
3- Living in Union with God:
What a blessed man this one who experiences the presence of God with him![61] The presence of God is a mystical presence; it can be experienced in the pure prayer[62]. Union with God by the Holy Spirit makes the soul restores the first piety and the first strength[63].
The soul restores the first image and the first authority over the creation. Father Matthew the Poor lived many years in his cave among the snakes, the serpents, the hyenas and many different wild animals. He told many stories to explain the reconciliation with the creation, even with the wild animals. One of these stories is mentioned as follows:
"One day I was in my cave… a huge serpent entered… she began to bend its neck for me… I gave her some food... she took the food silently… she lived with me in the cave… when I wanted to pray, I told her to go. She could understand and went."[64]
The reconciliation is not only with the animals but also it is with the plants. The agricultural crops in the monastery of St. Macarius
3- From Macarius to Matthew the Poor: Similarities, Differences and Developments:
A- Similarities:
The aim of the Christian ascetic life is the same according to both, St. Macarius Matthew the Poor. St. Macarius Christian Perfection" to refer to "deification", "Union with God" or "Theosis". Matthew the Poor uses "Union with God" and "Theosis" to refer to "Christian Perfection". The incarnation of the Word is the basic foundation for humans' deification. Restoration of the first image of Adam seems according to both more than a theological issue. It is a real living fact. Both of them taught it and manifested it in his life, especially in the relation with the wild animals.
Repentance and diligence are basic factors in the moving toward the aim of the ascetic life due to the two fathers. The Holy Spirit is the guide of this moving. Some times Matthew the Poor uses "the work of Grace " to refer to the work of the Holy Spirit. "Diligence in giving" is the same for both of them; each one of them distributed all what he had. Diligence in prayer has the same concepts with different expressions. Primitive prayer due to Macarius is equal to Meditation due to the Poor. Pure prayer due to Macarius is equal to contemplation due to the Poor. Ecstasy due to the Poor can be considered as an equivalent to have visions and to be caught away into the heavenly realm according to Macarius.
B- Differences:
The gifts of the Holy Spirit can be considered as an area which carries some differences between the two fathers. Divine healing, for Macarius, is the normal thing which supposed to be experienced in the regular life of the monk. Macarius healed many[66] and told his disciples to not go to any earthly physicians, as shown previously. For Matthew the Poor, the direct experience of divine healing is not considered as a main issue. Matthew the Poor himself went many times to physicians[67] and passed away in a hospital[68].
Also, rebuking the demons and the battles with evil spirits and demons seem to be clearer according to Macarius. This experience can be found many times in the life of Macarius[69]. For the Poor, this experience doesn't appear as a basic experience in his life, except some rare situations (one of these rare situations was before his entry to the monastic life)[70]. Matthew the Poor refused to pray for those who are possessed by evil spirits, he explained that, "this is not my message; my message is the monastic life which I took from the previous fathers."[71] In general, Matthew the Poor explained that he didn't ask God for the gifts of the Spirit[72].
C- Developments:
"The Christian mystical life" can be defined, generally, as a special experience that occurred when the soul enters into a very real sense of union with God. The reality of this sense of union with God is beyond the physical sense. Macarius taught about this experience during the pure prayer. Also, for Macarius the supernatural signs can occur in this kind of experience. For Matthew the Poor this mystic experience occurs with some development. It is not only can be found in the pure prayer, but also it can be found in the normal daily life[73]. It begins by the intuition in the direct secret experience in prayer[74]. But also, it can continue during the time of daily work and during the relationships with the others. The mystical dimension, which is a mystic experience of a very strong assurance about the Lord's presence, can be manifested to the monk through the world and through the others[75].
Work for Macarius is to supply his needs. His work was blessed because of God's presence. According to Macarius, the work has only a personal perspective[76]. For Matthew the Poor, Work is a very central theme in his theology. Pure prayer can't be found without daily work. And daily work can't success without pure prayer. Work is not only important for the personal life of the monk, but also the work of the monk is important for the whole community. When the monks work, filling with the Holy Spirit, they will show the world the true meaning of the reconciliation between the visible and invisible realm.[77]
Conclusion:
"We are a living part from a living history", these papers began by these words which Matthew the poor wrote to his disciples. The research affirmed that these words are true. Matthew the Poor and his disciples are a very living part from the very living monastic Church History. The analytical reading for the texts relating to Macarius and Matthew the Poor showed clearly the perspective of the continuity of Church History. Also, the differences and developments showed clearly the perspective of the uniqueness.
In spite of the differences and developments, it can be affirmed without doubt that:
If the monastery of St. Macarius
In the end of this research, in order to complete some farther details about this issue; it is recommended to study about the contemporary situation in some other Coptic monasteries.
Bibliography
Harmless, William . Desert Fathers: an introduction to the literature of the Early Monasticism. Oxford , New York : Oxford University
Mattá al-Miskīn. Orthodox Prayer Life: The Interior Way. Crestwood , N.Y.
________. Spiritual epistles. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius ' Monastery Press, 1984.
________. The Epistles of Matthew the Poor. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius
________. Coptic Monasticism. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius
________. Repentance and Ascetic life in the Bible. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius
________. The Divine vision for the Ecclesiastical feasts: the Holy Spirit, the living God. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius
________. With the Holy Spirit in our daily diligence: Synergy. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius
Monks of St. Macarius Father Matthew the Poor: A detailed biography. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
________. The Orthodox Patristic roots for the writings of Matthew the Poor: Part one. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
Periodicals
[2] Mattá al-Miskīn, The Epistles of Matthew the Poor (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
[4] William Harmless S.J. , Desert Christians: An introduction to the literature of early monasticism (Oxford
[6] Natron is Sodium Carbonate, which was used as a preservative in mummification and as a reagent in manufacturing glass.
[7] Tim Vivian Saint Macarius Saint Macarius Crestwood , New York St. Vladimir
[10] Matthew the Poor mentioned in his book "Coptic Monasticism", p.119, that in the Coptic scroll, Sarapion wrote that Macarius lived 97 years. If this information is accurate, the year of his death will supposed to be 397 instead of 300.
[14] St. Macarius Arthur James Mason St. Macarius
[16] "The fifty spiritual homilies", "Virtues of Macarius", "The sayings of the Desert Fathers" and "Life of Macarius" by Sarapion will be used to follow his spiritual life' characteristics.
[17] From "The ascetic teachings according to Great Egyptians fathers in the forth century" by P. Resch St. Macarius
- This way of abbreviation (Homily no.: verse) will be used for every quotation from "The fifty spiritual homilies" by St. Macarius Arthur James Mason
- In the English version, each homily begins by brief but doesn't have any title. In the Arabic version, each homily begins with the same brief with additional title.
- Homily 15 is titled in the Arabic version "The Holiness and the Piety". It is considered as the longest homily among the fifty homilies.
[21] Homily 39 is titled in the Arabic version "Why did God give us the Bible?" It is considered as the shortest homily among the fifty homilies.
[23] Homily 11 is titled in the Arabic version "The fire of the Spirit- Christ
[24] Douglas Burton- Christie
[26] Macarius 15-16 [Historica Manachorum Benedicta Ward Norman Russell Douglas Burton- Christie
[28] David Teague
[35] From Wikipedia: the free encyclopedia. Matthew the poor\Matta El Meskeen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia files\Matta El Meskeen - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.htm
[37] Sunday School Movement is considered as a highly influential reform movement in the Coptic Orthodox Church started by non-clergy in the 1930s.
[38] Samuel Rubenson Matthew the Poor (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
[39] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, Our Father Matthew the Poor: A detailed Biography (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
[42] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, The Orthodox Patristic roots for the writings of Matthew the Poor: Part one (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
[43] Mattá al-Miskīn, Repentance and Ascetic life in the Bible (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1982), 52
[45] Mattá al-Miskīn, The Divine vision for the Ecclesiastical feasts: The Holy Spirit, the living God (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1981), 211
[48] Mattá al-Miskīn, Orthodox Prayer Life: The Interior Way (Crestwood , N.Y. St. Vladimir
[49] "Union with God" is used in this section because it is used more than "Christian Perfection" in the writings of Matthew the Poor.
[50] Mattá al-Miskīn, With the Holy Spirit in our daily diligence: Synergy (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius
[51] Mattá al-Miskīn, Repentance and Ascetic life in the Bible, 8
[53] Mattá al-Miskīn, Spiritual Epistle, 25
[63] Mattá al-Miskīn, The Divine vision for the Ecclesiastical feasts: The Holy Spirit, the living God , 300
[69] Mattá al-Miskīn, Coptic Monasticism, 94- 97, also: Tim Vivian
[76] Mattá al-Miskīn, Coptic Monasticism, 83- 85
By: Tharwat Maher
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"Theosis and Spiritual warfare"
A conversation between:
Early Orthodox Tradition and contemporary Coptic Theology
Early Orthodox Tradition and contemporary Coptic Theology
Introduction:
In his classical book "The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church", Vladimir Lossky[1] wrote:
"All the development of the dogmatic battles which the church has waged down the centuries appears to us…as dominated by the constant preoccupation which the church has had to safeguard, at each moment of her history, for all Christians, the possibility of attaining to the fullness of the mystical union. So the church struggled against the Gnostics in defense of this same idea of deification as the universal end: 'God became man that men might become gods'. She affirmed, against the Arians, the dogma of the consubstantial Trinity; for it is the Word, the Logos, who opens to us the way to union with the Godhead; and if the incarnate Word has not the same substance with the Father, if he be not truly God, our deification is impossible…"[2]
These words which were written in 1944[3] seem to be very real today in Egypt, especially for the Coptic Orthodox society. One of the dogmatic battles about "the mystical union with God" is running now in Egypt.
Lossky, in his writings, as many other theologians, sees 'Union with God', which is also known as deification or Theosis, as a central theme in the Eastern Orthodox spirituality and in the Early Fathers' writings. He sees "Theosis" as the journey and the aim of the spiritual life, asceticism and "spiritual warfare" are required for this journey and for reaching this aim.[4] Many Coptic Orthodox theologians agree with these concepts, but on the other hand, some don't agree.
In this research, we will deal with this debate. So this research will discuss the Orthodox Tradition regarding the issues "Theosis" and "Spiritual warfare". The research paper will try to answer the question: Is there any differences between the Early Orthodox Tradition and the contemporary Coptic Theology toward these two issues or not?
To answer this question: first, the research will define the terms "Theosis" and "Spiritual warfare" according to the Early Orthodox Tradition, explaining the relation between the two issues.
Second, the research will deal with the first issue, Theosis, in the contemporary debate, by following some of the writings of Father Matthew the Poor, as an Orthodox theologian, which explain the issue of "Theosis" depending on the Eastern Early Fathers' teaching. Also, it will follow some of the writings of Pope Shenouda, the contemporary Coptic Orthodox Pope, Pope Shenouda in these writings assails the writings of Father Matthew the poor about "Theosis".
Third, in order to deal with the issue "spiritual warfare", the research will follow some of the writings of Father Daniel, as a famous Christian writer in Egypt and around the Arab world who depends on the sayings of the early Fathers in his writings. Father Daniel was an Orthodox Coptic monk for several years before his departure from the Coptic Church because of the disagreement of Pope Shenouda about his writings regarding the issue of "spiritual warfare". The paper will discuss this disagreement and will follow some of the writings of Pope Shenouda to understand the Coptic Pope's point of view about the issue of "Spiritual warfare".
Finally, the research will try to write a conclusion which expresses an understanding of the analytical reading of the whole previous writings, to find an answer to the main question: Is there any differences between the Early Orthodox Tradition and the contemporary Coptic Theology, which is represented by the writings of Pope Shenouda, toward these two issues "Theosis" and "Spiritual warfare" or not?
"Theosis" and "Spiritual warfare":
A- Defining the terms:
The word "Theosis" is the transliteration of the Greek word meaning "Deification".[5] Theosis can be defined as Kenneth Paul wrote:
"Theosis is a process of transformation from death in the flesh to life in the divine. It is rooted in the Christ, himself a mystery of transformation. For, in His incarnation, the divine Logos changes without changing; He becomes flesh without ceasing to be who He is… and united to Christ, humanity is changed "To those who received him He gave the power [i.e. the spirit] to become children of God" (John1: 12) yet without changing, for humanity continues to be a creature made in the image of God."[6]
In other words, Kenneth Leech, a contemporary Anglican priest, wrote:
"Theosis can be defined as the work of divine grace by which human nature is so transformed that it shines forth with a supernatural light and is transported above its own limits by a superabundance of glory."[7]
The main Biblical reference to Theosis or deification is (2 Peter1: 4): "you may be partakers of the Divine nature". Also Jesus' prayer, John17, is a basic reference to Theosis, especially (17: 22, 23): "And the glory which You gave Me I have given them, that they may be one just as We are One: I in them and You in Me; that they may be made perfect in one…". Some other basic references can be found in (Ephesians 5:25-32), about the Devine nuptial mystery, also (2Corinthians3:18) which shows that the final transfiguration of believers (Philippians 3:21, 1Corinthians15: 49) has begun already in the spiritual-sacramental life of faith.[8] We can deal with these verses, which mentioned, as some of many verses in the New Testament which related to this issue of "Theosis". It is important to mention that some theologians find the roots of the concept of Theosis not only in the New Testament but also in the Old Testament, especially in the context of creating man in the image of God and in the context of the "Abrahamic covenant[9]".
Briefly, we can say that Theosis is the restoration of the "image and likeness" of God, which distorted in the man by the fall. This restoration is the union with God, through the union with Jesus Christ, which begins now in our life of faith and "will be realized in its fullness only in the age to come, after the resurrection of the dead.[10]" So, Theosis is a gradually process of spiritual growing into this likeness of God, or gradually "sharing in the very being of God". And as we reach this point about the "gradually process of spiritual growing", we have to deal with a very important aspect of this spiritual growing, this aspect is the "Spiritual warfare". The one who seeks spiritual growing has to practice the spiritual warfare. The early desert fathers believed that diabolical temptation comes to those who desire to grow spiritually[11], so they practice the spiritual warfare. According to this understanding, we can find a direct relation between "Theosis and the Spiritual warfare" and as David Teague wrote: "The only way one can understand spiritual warfare in the Orthodox Tradition is in the context of spiritual growth. And the Orthodox conception of spiritual growth centers around the word Theosis."[12]
B- Theosis in the Orthodox tradition:
(Represented by some of the early Fathers' writings)
- Irenaeus (135-203):
He is considered as the first systematic theologian of the Christian church, in a letter "Against Heresies", he wrote about communion with God:
"the Lord . . . has redeemed us through His own blood, giving His soul for our souls, and His flesh for our flesh, and has also poured out the Spirit of the Father for the union and communion of God and man, imparting indeed God to men by means of the Spirit, and, on the other hand, attaching man to God by His own incarnation, and bestowing upon us at His coming immortality durably and truly, by means of communion with God…"[13]
In another letter, he wrote:
"It was for this end that the divine Logos was made man, and he who was the Son of God became the Son of Man, that man, having been taken into the Logos, and receiving the adoption, might become the son of God. For by no other means could we have attained to incorruptibility and immortality, unless we had been united to incorruptibility and immortality. But how could we be joined to incorruptibility and immortality unless, first, incorruptibility and immortality had become that which we also are, so that the corruptible might be swallowed up by incorruptibility and the mortal by immortality, that we might receive the adoption of sons?"[14]
According to Irenaeus, the aim of the incarnation is that we receive the adoption and attain to incorruptibility and immortality. This is the union with God.
- Athanasius (296-373)
If Irenaeus is considered as the first systematic theologian who dealt with "Theosis", Athanasius is considered as the most famous theologian who wrote about "Theosis". One of his statements is considered as the chief patristic reference to "Theosis", it says:
"For He was made man that we might be made God; and He manifested Himself by a body that we might receive the idea of the unseen Father…"[15]
Also, he has many other famous statements that express the union with God and deification, some of them are:
"He Himself has made us sons of the Father, and deified men by becoming Himself man"[16]
"He was not man, and then became God, but He was God, and then became man, and that to deify us."[17]
"The Word became flesh that He might make man capable of Godhead"[18]
"For as the Lord… became man, so we men are deified by the Word as being taken to Him through His flesh."[19]
"The Word did come among us, and that He might hallow and deify them."[20]
"For He has become man, that He might deify us in Himself… and that we may become henceforth a holy race and partakers of the Divine nature."[21]
- Basil the Great (328-379):
Basil the great is one of the three Cappadocian fathers, one of his famous sayings is:
"This is not the will of my real Sovereign; nor can I, who am the creature of God, and bidden myself to be God, submit to worship any creature"[22]
C- Spiritual warfare in the Orthodox tradition:
Spiritual warfare is one of the basic themes which can be noticed in the early fathers' writings. There are many aspects of the spiritual warfare. In this research, we will deal with one aspect, "the direct diabolic wars". And we will study some writings of Athanasius as an example of the writings of the Eastern early fathers about this issue. We will deal with two famous books by Athanasius:
(a) "The Life of Anthony":
Anthony the Great (251-356) is considered as the founder of Christian monasticism, there is a general agreement between the scholars that the book titled: "The Life of Anthony" was written by Athanasius. Athanasius wrote in this book many statements deal with the spiritual warfare, he wrote about rebuking demons some famous sentences, for example: "Despise the demons, and be in no fear of them"[23], "More and more, therefore, let the deceiver be despised by us"[24], and "We ought utterly to despise both him and his demons … we are able to despise them"[25].
Also, in this book, Athanasius told many stories about Anthony, these stories show some direct diabolic wars, and how to deal with it. In one of these stories he wrote:
"Once a demon exceeding high appeared with pomp, and dared to say, "I am the power of God and I am Providence, what dost thou wish that I shall give thee?" But I then so much the more breathed upon him, and spoke the name of Christ, and set about to smite him. And I seemed to have smitten him, and forthwith he, big as he was, together with all his demons, disappeared at the name of Christ"[26]
Also Athanasius wrote many words to tell how Anthony was dealing with the devil and his demons in direct words. For example, Anthony was saying to them: "The coming of Christ hath made thee weak, and He hath cast thee down and stripped thee"[27]. Also: "Thou art very despicable then, for thou art black-hearted and weak as a child"[28].
At this point, this part will be ended by the following story about St. Anthony which shows a strange direct diabolic war:
"In the night … the whole of that place seemed to be shaken by an earthquake and the demons as if breaking the four walls of the dwelling seemed to enter through them, coming in the likeness of beasts and creeping things. And the place was on a sudden filled with the forms of lions, bears, leopards, bulls, serpents, asps, scorpions, and wolves… But Anthony… said, 'If there had been any power in you, it would have sufficed had one of you come, but since the Lord hath made you weak you attempt to terrify me by numbers: and a proof of your weakness is that you take the shapes of brute beasts"[29]
(b) "The incarnation of the Word":
In his book "The incarnation of the Word", about the power of the name of Jesus Christ in the diabolic wars, Athanasius wrote: "For where Christ is named, and His faith, there all idolatry is deposed and all imposture of evil spirits is exposed, and any spirit is unable to endure even the name, nay even on barely hearing it flies and disappears"[30]. Also, he wrote about the weakness of the devil: "So weak has he become, that even women who were formerly deceived by him, now mock at him as dead and paralyzed"[31]
According to the previous early fathers' sayings, we can state that "Theosis and spiritual warfare" are important themes and basic issues in the writings of the Eastern early Fathers. It is clear that Theosis, or union with God, is the aim of Christian life.
Also, it is clear that in spiritual warfare, according to Athanasius and Anthony, the Christians can deal with the demons by rebuking them and despising them.
In the following part of this research, we will study the contemporary situation among the Coptic Orthodox society toward these two issues.
"Theosis": the contemporary debate:
a- The writings of Father Matthew the poor:
In his first book "The Orthodox prayer life" which was written in 1952,[32] Father Matthew the poor affirmed that, according to all the great early Fathers, we can say that Theosis is the aim of the Christian life[33].
By following the writings of Matthew the Poor, from his first book to the last one "With Christ" which published in 2006, we can say that "Theosis" is a very central theme in his writings. He specified chapters from some of his writings for this issue. For example, in his book "The Orthodox prayer life", he wrote a chapter titled "Union with God-Theosis"[34]. In this chapter he mentioned some of the early fathers' sayings about Theosis and mentioned also a guide to the rest of the important sayings. Also, in his book "Divine incarnation in the teaching of Cyril the Great" which was published in 1978, he wrote a chapter titled "the result of Divine Incarnation"[35]. In this chapter, he explained the relation between our "Deification" and "the incarnation of the Son of God Himself". He explained, from the teaching of St. Cyril, that the mystery of the incarnation is our only way to Theosis.[36] In 1979, he wrote a book titled "The Pentecostal in the early Fathers' Tradition"; he specified two chapters about "Partakers in the Divine nature"[37] Also in his book "St. Athanasius. His life and Theology" which was published in 1981, he wrote a chapter about the salvation according to St. Athanasius[38]. It can be considered that this chapter is one of the most important Arabic sources about the theology of salvation in the thought of Athanasius. Briefly, this chapter analyses the sayings and the teaching and shows that Theosis is a very central theme in the thought of Athanasius.
In general, we can find the concept of Theosis in many other books by Matthew the poor, until year 2006, like his commentaries on the gospels and his commentaries on the epistles of Paul the Apostle. Also, he wrote many articles deal with the issue of "Theosis". Not only Matthew the poor himself; but also, his disciples wrote many books about this issue. Some of these books are:
1- "The adoption in Jesus Christ according to the early Fathers": this book explains that the adoption in the Christ is Theosis, the book study the sayings of Irenaeus, Athanasius, Hillary, Cyril the Great and Augustine.[39]
2- "The incarnation and the Birth of Jesus according to the early Fathers": this book is explaining, in the second chapter, that Theosis is the final aim of the incarnation.[40]
3- "The Divine aim from creating the man according to the early Fathers": this book is showing a lot of early Fathers' sayings about Theosis with out any comments from the authors.[41]
b- Pope Shenouda assails the writings of Father Matthew the poor:
On the other hand, Pope Shenouda is standing against the teaching of Theosis. He assails the writings of Matthew the poor in some booklets, and finally he collected these booklets in a book titled "New Heresies". He wrote in this book that he had to write about this issue because he found that Theosis is a very basic concept in the thought of Matthew the Poor and his disciples. And Pope Shenouda, at all, doesn't agree that the "Deification" or "Theosis" is a patristic concept.
He sees that Theosis was the first sin of the fallen angle.[42] For the Pope, Theosis is a kind of pride and who teaches about this concept, needs to be humble and repent.[43] He assures that no one of the early Fathers wrote about the issue of Theosis. He wrote: "It is impossible that any one of the early Fathers taught about Theosis"[44]. In his book "New Heresies", Pope Shenouda shows his disagreement with some books by Matthew the Poor, he mentions the titles of these books as follows: "The Pentecostal"[45], "Divine incarnation in the teaching of Cyril the Great"[46], "The Eucharist"[47], "That Christ may dwell in your hearts through faith"[48], "St. Paul. His life and Theology"[49], "The bridegroom"[50] and "The birth of Christ and the birth of man"[51] The main point in these books, which makes Pope Shenouda in disagreement with Matthew the Poor, is "Theosis".
Pope Shenouda denies the teaching of Theosis, using in his denying some Islamic words; he wrote about Theosis: "May be, this is a kind of what the Muslims called "associationism with God", worshiping gods beside God, or "el-sherk"[52]. Also, Pope Shenouda wrote many articles in "El-Keraza" magazine which show his disagreement with the concept of Theosis. In addition to his writings, Pope Shenouda taught about his disagreement with the teaching of Matthew the poor in the Coptic Orthodox Theological Seminary in Cairo and Alexandria.[53] In June 2006, El-Keraza magazine wrote: "It was said to the Pope “why don’t you ecclesiastically judge him (they mean to judge Matthew the Poor about his thoughts about Theosis)", and the Pope replied with his famous phrase: "we don’t fight a person but we fight a certain thought (He means that he fight against the thought of Theosis)".[54]
According to the previous study of these writings of Matthew the Poor and Pope Shenouda, this part can be ended by mention that the contemporary situation in Egypt toward the teaching of Theosis can be shown in two main directions. The first direction is represented by the writings of Father Matthew the Poor, and his disciples, this writings affirms Theosis as a very important and central theme in the Orthodox Spirituality. The other direction is represented by the writings of Pope Shenouda which deny the concept of Theosis at all from the Orthodox spirituality. By comparing these two directions to the early Fathers' teaching; the first one, teaching of Matthew the Poor, seems to be closer to the patristic teaching than the second.
"Spiritual warfare": the contemporary debate:
This debate about "Spiritual warfare" took place in the Christian community in Egypt during the last two decades. The debate is not about the whole concept of spiritual warfare. It concentrates around how to deal with the demons in the spiritual warfare.
The debate began in 1987, when Father Daniel, who was an Orthodox Coptic monk, published two books, the first titled "And they overcame him" and the second titled "The snare was broken". He put the two books together in one volume titled "Satan is under the feet". In these two books, Father Daniel taught that the true Christian can rebuke the demons and despise them in the spiritual warfare.
In his books, Father Daniel quoted many sayings of the early fathers; some of them will be mentioned, as follows:
- From Cyril of Alexandria, he quoted from his commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. He proved from the sayings of Cyril, that St. Cyril was encouraging his people to shout against Satan, proclaim the victory of Jesus over the enemies and proclaim that Satan in under our feet.[55] Also, he shows how St. Cyril taught that Jesus rebuked the demons to give us the authority to rebuke them.[56]
- From St. Macarius the Egyptian, he quoted from his homilies, how St. Macarius taught about the necessity of casting out demons and rebuking them.[57]
- From St. Athanasius and St. Anthony, he quoted from the book "Life of Anthony" about despising the demons.[58]
- From St. John the ladder, he quoted about punishing the demons by using the name of Jesus Christ in rebuking them.[59]
Father Daniel taught in his books that we have to proclaim our authority, he wrote: "My friend, we have to proclaim our authority… we have to shout against Satan and say to him: you are a loser enemy… your place is under our feet… we are able to rebuke you… we are able to cast you out."[60] About the necessity of Faith in the battle with the demons, he wrote: "We need the precious faith, which trust the victory of the cross, this faith which gives us brave to say to the demons: you are very weak, you have no authority on my life… in the name of the victorious Lord, Jesus, I rebuke you."[61] Also, Father Daniel explains in his book that the believer has to face the demons which try to obstruct his life, freedom or ministry.[62] He encourages the true Christians not only to defend against the demons attacks, but also to attack the demons which try to obstruct, he encourages people to attack these demons without fear.[63]
Father Daniel wrote many other books which most of them contains parts teach about spiritual warfare. In theses parts, he assures that we can rebuke and despise the evil spirits. For example, in his book "Don't cast away your confidence", He wrote two chapters about the necessity of trusting the promises of God and using them in the battles. He encourages his reader to proclaim the promises of God and say it in a direct way to the evil spirits to resist any activity of the darkness.[64] Also, in his book "It's time to break the pattern", about using the Word of God. He wrote:
"And these signs will follow those who believe: In My name they will cast out demons (Mark16:17).
Note that the Lord didn't say that casting out demons will follow the mature Christians or the church pastors, but he said it will follow those who believe, i.e. every single believer.
You have the authority to cast the evil spirits out of the domain of their activities against you. Rebuke them in the Name of Jesus… Follow the Lord's example in your confrontation with the enemy by quoting the right scriptures from the Word of God, the sword of the Spirit."[65]
During this period of time, the eighties, not only Father Daniel who published books about the spiritual warfare, but also Pope Shenouda published two important books about spiritual warfare; these two books were delivered first in the form of lectures in the sixties[66] and seventies[67] and then published as books in eighties. The first book was titled "Diabolic wars", the Pope wrote in this book about the different kinds of diabolic wars as external wars. And in the second book "Spiritual warfare", he wrote about the different kinds of internal wars.[68]
In his book "Diabolic wars", Pope Shenouda wrote a chapter titled "How to over come diabolic wars"[69]. He mentioned many ways that help to overcome the wars. Among these many ways, he wrote a part about "Humility"[70]. He explains that we can defeat demons by being humble in our battles with them. What Pope Shenouda wrote in this chapter is not compatible with that which written by Father Daniel in his books.
In 1991, Pope Shenouda proclaimed his disagreement with the teaching of Father Daniel. He proclaimed his disagreement in two ways: First, by excommunicating Father Daniel from the Coptic Orthodox Church, and second by writing some articles in El-Keraza magazine, in this article he assailed the books by Father Daniel. Pope Shenouda wrote that the teaching of Father Daniel is not an Orthodox teaching, he wrote: "this teaching is a result of reading or translating some strange books which full of this way of pride."[71] Pope Shenouda showed his refuse to this teaching in a clear way and asked in an exclamatory way: "Did we deify ourselves and want to deify people!"[72]
According to the previous study of these writings of Father Daniel and Pope Shenouda, we can brief that they are in disagreement about rebuking the demons, the teaching which encourages rebuking and despising the demons seem to be closer to the early Fathers' writings than the other.
Conclusion:
The aim of this research was to find an answer to the question: Is there any differences between the Early Orthodox Tradition and the contemporary Coptic Theology, which is represented by the writings of Pope Shenouda, toward the two issues "Theosis" and "Spiritual warfare" or not?
As shown previous, there are differences between the thought in the Early Fathers' writings and the writings of Pope Shenouda. Also, it can be noticed that these differences are not on the same degree toward the two issues.
About the issue of "Theosis", the degree of difference is a high degree. Pope Shenouda is denying that the concept is existed at all. In spite of this denying, most of the early Fathers' writings stand to affirm that the concept of Theosis is an orthodox patristic concept. Pope Shenouda refused the writings of Father Matthew the poor about the concept of Theosis and classifies the concept as "new heresy", while the concept according to the writings of the Early Fathers, is not "New" nor "Heresy".
About the concept of "Spiritual warfare", the degree of difference between the writings of Pope Shenouda and the Patristic thought is less than the first issue. Pope Shenouda affirms that the concept is existed, but he differs from the Patristic writings, and from the writings of Father Daniel, in the way that spiritual warfare can be practiced.
In his book "New Heresies", Pope Shenouda made an unexpected connection between the teaching of Father Matthew the Poor and the teaching of Father Daniel. The Pope refers to a sentence written by Matthew the Poor, and wrote: "These words remind us of the thought of Daniel, the excommunicated monk; in his book (The snare was broken)."[73]
This unexpected connection can be understood if we notice that Pope Shenouda has the same point of view about the two issues, Theosis or rebuking the demons in the spiritual warfare, he classifies the two issues as "a kind of pride".
Finally, if the writings of Pope Shenouda are considered to represent the contemporary Coptic theology about these two issues, it can be mentioned that there are some differences between this contemporary Coptic theology and the Patristic theology.
In the end of this research, in order to complete some farther details about this issue; it is recommended to study about the following issue:
"In the absence of the concept "Theosis" from the contemporary Coptic theology, which represented by the writings of Pope Shenouda, how can we understand the concept of "Spiritual warfare" in the contemporary Coptic writings?"
Bibliography
F. Daniel. And they overcame him. Cairo: G.C. center, 1987.
________. The snare was broken. Cairo: G.C. center, 1988.
________. Don't cast away your confidence. Cairo: G.C. center, 1994.
________. It's time to break the Pattern. Cairo: G.C. Center, 2002.
Lossky, Vladimir. The Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church. London: J. Clarke, 1973.
Mattá al-Miskīn. Orthodox Prayer Life: The Interior Way. Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003.
________. St. Athanasius: his life and Theology. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 2002.
________. Divine incarnation in the teaching of Cyril the Great. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1978.
________. The Pentecostal in the early Fathers' Tradition. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1979.
Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery. Life of Matthew the poor. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 2008
________. The adoption in Jesus Christ according to the early Fathers. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1994.
________. The incarnation and the Birth of Jesus according to the early Fathers. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1995.
________. The Divine aim from creating the man according to the early Fathers. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1994.
P. Shenouda. New Heresies. Cairo: Anba Rues Press, 2007.
________. Spiritual warfare. Cairo: Anba Rues Press, 1985.
________. Diabolic wars. Cairo: Anba Rues Press, 1989.
St. Athanasius. Life of Anthony. In The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, Vol. 4, second series, Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978.
________. On the Incarnation of the Word. In The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, Vol. 4, second series, Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978.
St. Gregory of Nazianzen. Funeral oration on Basil the Great. In The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, Vol.7, second series, Edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace. Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978.
Periodicals
El- Keraza. “Church's news” El- Keraza Magazine, no.21,22 (2006): 5-6
El- Keraza. “With the people's question” El- Keraza Magazine, no.17, 18 (1991) 14-19
Marquart, Kurt E. “Luther and Theosis.” Concordia Theological Quarterly 64 (Fort Wayne, Indiana 2000): 182-205.
Rakestraw, Robert V. “Becoming like God: An Evangelical doctrine of Theosis.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40, no.2Je (1997): 257- 269.
Teague, David. “Spiritual warfare”. An article in the curriculum: Christianity in the Middle East-p.3, Edited by Roger Rogahn. (Cairo, Evangelical Theological Seminary in Cairo, 2008)
Wesche, Kenneth Paul. “Eastern Orthodox Spirituality: Union with God in Theosis.” Theology Today 56, no.1Ap (1999): 29- 43.
[1] Vladimir Nikolayevich Lossky (1903-1958) was known as one of the most brilliant Orthodox theologians in the 20th century, he emphasized "Theosis" as the main principle of Orthodox Christianity. (www.wikipedia.org)
[2] Vladimir Lossky, the Mystical Theology of the Eastern Church. (London: James Clarke, 1973) p 9, 10
[5] Robert V. Rakestraw. “Becoming like God: An Evangelical doctrine of Theosis.” Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society 40, no.2Je (1997): 257
[6] Kenneth Paul Wesche. “Eastern Orthodox Spirituality: Union with God in Theosis.” Theology Today 56, no.1Ap (1999): 30
[11] David Teague. “Spiritual warfare”. An article in the curriculum: "Christianity in the Middle East-3", Edited by Roger Rogahn. ETSC (Cairo:2008)
Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, Vol. 4, second series, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace
(Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978),65
Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, second series, vol. 7, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace
(Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978),411
[23] St. Athanasius, "Life of Anthony.", paragraph 30, in The Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of Christian church, Vol. 4, second series, edited by Philip Schaff and Henry Wace (Grand Rapids, Mich.: Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1978),204
[32] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, "Life of Matthew the poor" (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,2008),397
[33] Mattá al-Miskīn, "Orthodox Prayer Life: The Interior Way" (Crestwood, N.Y.: St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2003),112
[35] Mattá al-Miskīn, "Divine incarnation in the teaching of Cyril the Great" (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1978),21-44
[36] Ibid,33
[37] Mattá al-Miskīn, " The Pentecostal in the early Fathers' Tradition" (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1979),31-39
[38] Mattá al-Miskīn, "St. Athanasius: His life and Theology" (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1981),484-541
[39] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, "The adoption in Jesus Christ according to the early Fathers " (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1994)
[40] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, "The incarnation and the Birth of Jesus according to the early Fathers " (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1995)
[41] Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, "The Divine aim from creating the man according to the early Fathers " (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,1994)
=============================================
The Coptic Community under the Ottoman Rule
(1517-1798)
Introduction:
In his classical book "Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church", Theodore Hall[1] wrote:
"The Coptic Church Had Survived eight and a half centuries of Muslim rule before Egypt Egypt Egypt
These words which were written by a western scholar express to some extent the real situation of the Coptic community under the Ottoman rule. It reflects a general perspective, but the detailed events of the story are farther. The Coptic status under the Turkish role was harder than ever.[3] Suffering and persecution through some periods of the Turkish rule reached the peak. Through this era, History shows a very strange contrast. While the great reformer Martin Luther was shaking the world by establishing the foundations of the Reformation movement[4], Egypt
This Essay will study the Coptic community status under the Ottoman rule (1517-1798).The study will be a descriptive analytical study. The essay will answer the question: what are the main characteristics of the Egyptian society, in general, and the Coptic community, in particular, under the Ottoman rule?
To answer this question: first, the research will define the terms “Copts” and “Ottoman rule” according to some historical studies. Second, the research will follow the general Egyptian status under the Ottoman rule. The political, social, economical and religious status will be discussed and followed by an analytical reading. By studying the general Egyptian status in the second part; it will be easier to go to the third part of the essay; to make a focus on the Christians’ status. The third section of the essay will demonstrate the characteristics of the Coptic community under the Ottoman rule. It will demonstrate the strength points and the weaknesses in the Coptic community during this era. Then a brief conclusion will follow.
“Copts” under the “Ottoman Rule”
A- Defining the terms:
i. “Copts”:
There are two theories for defining the term “Copt”. It is not easy to affirm one and neglect the other.[5] The first theory is based on homonymy.[6] It connects the term with the name of the city “Coptos”, it is a city located about 25 miles northeast of Luxor Egypt
The second hypothesis sees that the term is derived from the Greek term “Aigyptos”. The Greek term, in turn, was a phonetic corruption of the ancient Egyptian name of the city of Memphis
Generally, it can be noticed that the two hypothesizes connect the term with the land of Egypt Egypt , the words “Coptic” and “Christian” became interchangeable in common from the beginning of the Arab conquest of the land of Egypt
Ethnically, the Copts are Mediterranean . Al-Jabarti[10] affirms that the Copts are the direct descendents of the ancient Egyptians. They are the Pharaohs’ offspring and the oldest nation in the land of Egypt
ii. “Ottoman Rule”:
The Ottoman rule in Egypt Egypt Egypt to affirm the Ottoman authority over Egypt Egypt
B- The general Egyptian status under the Ottoman rule:
i. The political and administrative status:
Once the Ottoman rule settled in Egypt and the Turkish conqueror Selim went back to Turkey
The governmental structure in Egypt Egypt
ii. The social status:
The social structure, also, was a pyramidical structure. The Ottomans were at the top of the structure. The slaves were at the bottom. In between the Mamluks, the Muslims, the Romans, the Copts and the Jews can be arranged in a descending order.[16] The total population of Egypt in the second half of the sixteenth century was about four millions, five hundreds thousands of them were in Cairo
iii. The economic status:
The whole Egyptians suffered because of the economic status under the Ottoman rule. The Muslims paid the regular taxes. The Christians paid “Jizyah” in addition to these regular taxes and some times they paid another tax called “al-Gawali”.[18] Most of the Egyptians, Muslims and Christians, were suffered from poverty.[19] In spite of this general suffering and poverty, “al-Azhar”, the institution of the religious learning, became richer and more powerful.[20]
iv. The religious status:
The Islamic institution was the higher authority in the Turkish Empire . All the states in the empire were Islamic states. The Turkish ruler “al-Sultan” himself could not take any decision without the agreement of “Sheikh al-Islam”, the general elder of Islam. Sheikh al-Islam had the authority to excommunicate the Sultan himself. Egypt
v. An analytical reading for the general Egyptian status under the Ottoman rule:
By analyzing the previous brief description of the general status of the Egyptian society, two main factors that affected the society in a negative way can be noticed. The first factor was the appearance of the Mamluks in the higher authority of the political administration. The Mamluks were the previous rulers of Egypt Egypt
The second factor which affected the society in a negative way was the fanatic Islam. The fanatic Islam empowered the racial discrimination. It was normal to consider any one who had a different opinion from al-Azhar as a blasphemer or “Kafer”. Also, the Muslims dealt with the Christians, in some periods of this era, as blasphemers. The fanatic Islam was against any spreading of cultural or secular thoughts in the society. Any thoughts from outside al-Azhar were considered as blaspheme. Fanatic Islam helped the darkness and the corruption to spread all over the country.
C- The Copts’ status under the Ottoman rule:
In this section of the essay, the characteristics of the Coptic community under the Ottoman rule will be discussed. As shown previously, the whole Egyptian community was subjected to the corruption. The Christian community, as a minority, was subjected to this corruption more than any others. The Coptic status can be summarized in the following characteristics:
i. The political status:
The general rule was “No role” for any Christian in the political life. There was no Christian ruler. There was not any Christian in the army. History did not record any appearance of the Copts in the political life except some Coptic strikes against the Muslim rulers. Even these strikes can not be described as political. Most of these strikes were because of the increasing of al- Jizyah.[23]
ii. The administrative status:
The Copts had a very good experience in the financial administrative issues.[24] Because of this experience, the Ottomans involved them in the administrative life. The Copts worked as taxes collectors.[25] The Ottomans depended on them in collecting the money but never allowed them to share in any process of making decisions. The Ottomans only used and abused the Copts. The Copts understood this kind of thinking. As a result of that understanding, many of the Copts abused their authority, stole the taxes and encouraged the corruption.[26]
In spite of those Copts who abused the authority, there were some Copts who became very famous because of their honesty. Ibrahim al-Gohary was one of these honest Copts. He was the chief of all the Coptic administrators.[27] Also, there was another Coptic man called Barakat. The Turkish ruler toke Barakat with him to Turkey
iii. The economic status:
The Copts shared in the economic life by different ways, their economic activities can be shown in the following three points:
1. The agriculture:
Although the Ottomans prevented the Copts from owning the lands[29], the Copts paid a rent for the lands, planted it and cropped it. The Copts rent the lands in the Upper and in the Lower Egypt . They planted gardens and crops.
2. The crafts:
Although Sultan Selim carried with him to Turkey
3. The commerce:
The Copts shared in the commercial activities. But in general the commercial life was very weak from the period of the Mamluk rule. When Selim came to Egypt in 1517, he asked for twelve Egyptian merchants to talk with them about the commercial activities in Egypt Egypt
iv. The social status:
The social status can be discussed in five points:
1. The general population:
It is very hard to give an accurate number of the total population of the Copts under the Ottoman rule.[31] The basic numbers came from the statistics to those who paid al-Jizyah every year or from the foreigner historians who visited Egypt
2. The geographical distribution:
The Coptic occurrence was concentrated in the Upper Egypt . The Muslim rulers of the Upper Egypt were weaker than those in Lower Egypt, so the Christians preferred to live in the Upper Egypt . They did not prefer Alexandria or Suez Cairo Cairo
3. Persecution and suffering:
In addition to the regular taxes, al-Jizyah and al-Gawali, the Ottomans persecuted the Copts by adding fines in every situation. Even in many Coptic funerals, the Ottomans did not permit them to bury the dead persons without paying fines. Copts could not bury their patriarch Matthew ΙV in 1675 until they paid fines first.[37] Also, the monks and the priests had to pay taxes.[38]
The Ottomans prevented the Copts from using the horses. They prevented them from wearing the regular colors; the Copts had to wear blue and had to cover their heads with black.[39] They had to walk on the left side of the streets and they prevented from eating in Ramadan.[40] The Copts had to hang the crosses when they entered the public baths.[41] The Ottomans dealt with the Copts as blasphemers, especially the monks.[42]
The second Ottoman era in Egypt
4. The Coptic situation from the foreign capitulations:
The Copts were against the capitulations. They refused to be dealt as foreigners. They affirmed that they are the original Egyptians and the offspring of the Pharaohs. The Copts refused any efforts to help them from outside. Even, they refused to send their children to learn outside Egypt
5. Coptic language:
Coptic language was the spoken language of ancient Egypt until the Arab conquest of Egypt Egypt
Al-Maqrizi[47] wrote that in his days, in the fifth century, he met some women from the Upper Egypt could not talk any other language except the Coptic language.[48] In the sixteenth century, according to statements made by the famous Egyptologist Maspero, the Copts still spoke Coptic. In the seventeenth century, the Coptic language was taught in the Coptic schools.[49] Also, the Dominican traveler J.M.Vansleb pointed out, in the account of his travels in Upper Egypt in 1672-1673, that he met an Egyptian man called Athanasius who used to use Coptic in conversations.[50] According to these notices, it can be stated that the Ottoman rule was the last period of practicing the Coptic language.
v. The religious status:
The religious status can be discussed in five points:
1. The spiritual status:
The Copts under the Ottoman rule can be described as religious people. They defended their religion against the Muslims.[51] In spite of their religious, they lived a very weak spiritual life. Their lives were full of corruption. They were liquor’s addicts and gamblers. They tried to enter the priesthood by bribe. All of these corrupted things show that the Coptic religious appearance was only a reaction of the fanatic Islam. There are some scrolls in the Coptic museum which show some sermons by the Orthodox bishops against this corruption in the Copts’ lives.[52]
2. Building of the churches:
The general rule in the Ottoman era was “No church in Islam”. The Copts could not build new churches nor rebuild the old churches.[53] There were some angry reactions from the Copts against this persecution. For example, in 1577 the Copts built a new church on the rubbish of a razed mosque. When the Muslims tried to prevent them, the Copts fought the Muslims with weapons.[54]
3. The Coptic Orthodox patriarchs under the Ottoman rule:
The coming of the Ottoman conquest of Egypt Egypt
4. The Coptic situation from the foreigner missionaries:
As mentioned previous, the year of the beginning of the Ottoman rule was the same year of the beginning of the Reformation movement. The Western Catholic church began to send missionaries to Egypt Egypt
The Coptic patriarchs refused any suggestions of affiliation. The patriarch Yoannis XIV, the 96th patriarch, was the only one who agreed to affiliated, but he passed away before completing the affiliation.[56] There were some correspondences between the Coptic and the Roman Catholic which show the detailed negotiations and reflect the strict Coptic situation against any affiliation. One of the famous correspondences was the detailed epistle which the patriarch Yoannis XVIII, the 107th patriarch, sent to the Pope of Rome. This epistle was a detailed, reasoned, logical and irrefutable explanation of the true Orthodox doctrines.[57]
When the Roman Catholic Church could not change the patriarchal situation, it began to attract the Copts people themselves. The Catholic Church built schools in many places, but the Copts dealt with them in a very strict way also.[58]
History shows that the Copts dealt with the missionaries in a respectful way, but they refused any kind of support from them.[59] Except Peter Heyling[60], the Lutheran missionary who stayed in St. Macarius’ monastery for almost a year, there was not any deep relation between the Copts and the missionaries.
5. The monks and the monasteries:
At the end of the Ottoman era in 1798, the monasteries reached a very weak status. The number of monks declined to a very limited number and they were distributed among only four or five monasteries. St. Macarius’ monastery was an exception. The Macarian monks faced the Ottoman power with patience. They rebuilt the old buildings in the monastery many times from the rubbish.[61] The monastery of St. Macarius had many good relations with the foreigner missionaries. It served as a training-school for Franciscan missionaries in the middle of the seventeenth century.[62] During the Ottoman era, many foreigners visited the Macarian monastery with its famous old library.[63] By the coming of the French conquest, there were twenty monks in the monastery of St. Macarius.[64]
Conclusion:
The aim of this research was to find an answer to the question: what are the main characteristics of the Egyptian society, in general, and the Coptic community, in particular, under the Ottoman rule?
As shown previously, the main characteristics were demonstrated. Generally speaking, it can be concluded that the general Egyptian status was not good. The Coptic status was the worst. The Copts achieved some succeed in the administrative and economic life. They were a reaction against the fanatic Islam sometimes. They did not do any effort to communicate with the other Christians around the world. Except the monks of St. Macarius monastery, there was no communication with the Reformation Movement.
Bibliography
Abd- ElAziz, Gmal El-Dein. Tarikh Misr min khilal Makhtotat Tarikh Al-Btarika Li- Sawirus Ibn El-Mukafaa’ (The History of Egypt through The Scroll of The History of the Patriarchs by Sawirus ibn Mukaffa’). Cairo
Afifi, Mohammed. Al-Akbat fi Al-Asr El-Osmani (The Copts in the Ottoman age). Cairo
Al-Antony, Antonios. Watanit Al-Kanisa Al-Kbtia wa Tarikhha (The Nationality of the Coptic Church and its History). Cairo
Al-Masri, Sana’a. Hwamish Al-Fath Al-Arabi (The Margins of the Arab conquest). Cairo
Atiya, Aziz S., editor in chief. The Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol. 2. New York
Badr, Habib, Sa’ad Salim, and Joseph Abu Nahra. Christianity: A History in the Middle East, trans. George Sabrs, Nuha Jurayj, and Najla Salman Prothro. Beirut : Middle East Council of Churches, 2001.
Bakr, Abd- ElWahab. Al-Dawla Al-Osmania fi Misr (The Ottoman Empire in Egypt Cairo
Habib, Iris. Kesat Al-Kanisa Al-Masria (The Story of the Coptic Church). Alexandria
________. The story of the Copts. Cairo : The Middle East Council of Churches, 1978.
Hamilton, Alastair. The Copts and the West, 1439-1822: The European Discovery of the Egyptian Church Oxford : Oxford University
Hassan, Esmat Mohamed. Al-Hayah Al-Egtma’ya li Masr min khelal ketabat Al-Gabarti (The Egyptian Social life through the writings of Al-Jabarti). Cairo
Ishak, Shenoda Maher. Torath El-Adab El-Cepti (The Coptic literature Tradition). Cairo
Kamil, Murad. Coptic Egypt Cairo
Luka, Malak. Al-Aqbat: Al-Nash’aa wa Al-Siraa’(The Coptic: Birth and Fight). Cairo
Mattá al-Miskīn (Matthew the Poor). Al-Rahbanah Al-Keptia (Coptic Monasticism). Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1972.
Meinardus, Otto. Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Dsert. Cairo : The American University in Cairo
Nakhla, Kamel Saleh. Tarikh al-Patarica (The History of the Patriarchs). Wadi Al-Natroun: Al-Serian Monastery Press, 2001.
Partrick, Theodore Hall. Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church. Minnesota : Fisher Park
Winter, Michael. Egyptian Society Under Ottoman Rule. London
[1] Theodore Hall Partrick has taught church history in theological schools in Haiti , Mexico , and at N.C.A. &T. State University University of Chicago
[2] Theodore Hall Partrick, Traditional Egyptian Christianity: A History of the Coptic Orthodox Church (Greensboro: Fisher Park Press, 1996), 107.
[4] “It is common to consider that the beginning of the Protestant Reformation was Luther’s act of nailing the ninety-five Theses on the church door in Wittenberg on October 31, 1517.”, Elgin S. Moyer, Great leaders of the Christian Church (Chicago: Moody Press, 1951), 310.
[5]Aziz S. Atiya, editor in chief, The Coptic Encyclopedia, Vol. 2 (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1991), 599.
[7] Malak Luka, Al-Aqbat: Al-Nash’aa wa Al-Siraa’ “The Coptic: Birth and Fight” (Cairo
[8] Ptah was the God of creation, in the ancient Egypt , and was worshipped before all others in Memphis
[10] Abd Al-Rahman Al-Jabarti (1753-1825) was an Egyptian Muslim scholar and chronicler who spent most of his life in Cairo Egypt
[11] Esmat Mohamed Hassan, Al-Hayah Al-Egtma’ya li Masr min khelal ketabat Al-Gabarti “The Egyptian Social life through the writings of Al-Jabarti” (Cairo
[12] “Bab-Zwela” or “the door of Zwela” is one of the ancient doors of the ancient Cairo
[13] Abd el-Wahab Bakr, Al-Dawla Al-Osmania fi Misr “The Ottoman Empire in Egypt
[15] Abd el-wahab Bakr, Al-Dawla Al-Osmania fi Misr “The Ottoman Empire in Egypt
[17] Kamel Saleh Nakhla, Tarikh al-Patarica “The History of the Patriarchs” (Wadi Al-Natroun: Al-Serian Monastery Press, 200), 111.
[19] Samir Marcus, “The Copts in the Ottoman Era” in Badr, Habib, Sa’ad Salim, and Joseph Abu Nahra. Christianity: A History in the Middle East, trans. George Sabrs, Nuha Jurayj, and Najla Salman Prothro (Beirut: Middle East Council of Churches, 2001), 675.
[20]Abd el-wahab Bakr, 59 and Michael Winter, 185.
[21]Abd el-wahab Bakr, 60.
[22] Iris Habib, Kesat Al-Kanisa Al-Masria “The Story of the Coptic Church” (Alexandria: El-Karnak, 1975), 53.
[23] Michael Winter, 317.
[24] Malak Luka, Al-Aqbat: Al-Nash’aa wa Al-Siraa’ ”The Coptic: Birth and Fight” (Cairo
[25] Mohammed Afifi, Al-Akbat fi Al-Asr El-Osmani “The Copts in the Ottoman Era” (Cairo: The Egyptian Association for Book, 1992), 107.
[29] Malak Luka, 678.
[35] These three areas now are called: (Shoubra, Azbakia and al-Fgala), (al-Sayeda Zinab and al-Kal’aa) and Haret- Zwela.
[36] Antonios Al-Antony, Watanit Al-Kanisa Al-Kbtia wa Tarikhha “The Nationality of the Coptic Church and its History” (Cairo: Dar Al-Teba’a, 1995), 315,316.
[40]Antonios Al-Antony , 315.
[43] Esmat Mohamed Hassan , 102.
[45] Malak Luka, 529.
[47] Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364 – 1442) was an Egyptian historian more commonly known as al-Maqrizi. Although he was "a Mamluk-era historian and himself a Sunni, he is remarkable in this context for his unusually keen interest in the Ismaili Fatimid dynasty and its role in Egyptian history.
[48] Sanaa, Al-Masri, Hwamish Al-Fath Al-Arabi “The Margins of the Arab conquest” (Cairo
[49] Kamel Saleh Nakhla , 60.
[50] Shenoda Maher Ishak, Torath El-Adab El-Cepti “The Coptic literature Tradition” (Cairo
[55] Gmal El-Dein Abd- ElAziz , Tarikh Misr min khilal Makhtotat Tarikh Al-Btarika Li- Sawirus Ibn El-Mukafaa’ “The History of Egypt through The Scroll of The History of the Patriarchs by Sawirus ibn Mukaffa’” (Cairo: Madbouly Bookstore, 2006), 1122- 1143.
[59] Kamel Saleh Nakhla, 111.
[60] Alastair Hamilton, The Copts and the West, 1439-1822: The European Discovery of the Egyptian Church Oxford : Oxford University
[61] Mattá al-Miskīn, Coptic Monasticism (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press,2006), 293-297.
[62] Otto Meinardus, Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Dsert (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1961), 187.
By: Tharwat Maher, PhD, Regent University
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| St. Polycarp, Bishop of Smyrna |
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| St. Macarius the Egyptian |
"Characteristics of Christian Piety"
A conversation between:
St. Polycarp, bishop of Smyrna and St. Macarius the Egyptian
Introduction:
"Church History can be and should be read as a story for that is exactly what it is."[1]
In his classical book "Great leaders of the Christian church", Moyer[2] wrote these words which describe a very important perspective for reading the Church History. This important perspective is the perspective of the continuity of this very precious history. "Church History can be read as a story…" means that we can follow the elements of this story from one stage to another, through the whole story. Also, it means that we can notice the development which is occurred for a certain element from one stage to another.
In this research, "the characteristics of the Christian Piety" is the element which will be followed. It will not be followed through the whole story of the church. It will be followed according to, only, two of the Early Fathers of the church. The first Father is St. Polycarp Polycarp is from the Apostolic Fathers' period and he martyred in the second century. The second Father is St. Macarius
First, the research will follow the main characteristics of the Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp St. Macarius
After the analytical reading for the selected texts, according to St. Polycarp St. Macarius St. Polycarp St. Macarius
1- The characteristics of Christian Piety due to St. Polycarp
The analytical reading to "The Martyrdom of Polycarp " and "The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians" shows some major characteristics of Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp
1- Imitation:
Imitation takes two directions, imitation of Christ and imitation of Martyrs and disciples, "Polycarp waited to be betrayed, as also did the Lord, that we in turn might imitate him…" (M.p.1:2)[15]. It is closed to what Paul wrote to the Corinthians "Imitate me, just as I also imitate Christ ." (1Cor11:1). Imitation is not only because of the martyrdom, but also because of the way of life "For he (Polycarp ) was adorned with every good thing because of his exemplary way of life." (M.p.13:2).
Imitation of Christ according to the martyrdom of Polycarp includes even the details of his death. For example, Polycarp waited to be betrayed like Jesus . Also, he prayed before his martyrdom and he asked that God's will be done. It is mentioned that who arrested Polycarp , his name was Herod . And "those who betrayed him might suffer the punishment of Judas himself" (M.p.6:2). So, "Every one longs to imitate his martyrdom, since it occurred in conformity with the gospel of Christ " (M.p.19:1) and "May we be found to have followed in his footsteps in the kingdom of Jesus Christ Polycarp wrote to the Philippians to be imitators of Jesus ' patience (Ph.p.8)[16], to "follow the example of the Lord" (Ph.p.10) and to imitate the way of life of the saints like Ignatius , Zosimus and Rufus (Ph.p.9).
2- Martyrdom:
The martyrdoms "have occurred according to the will of God"(M.p.2:1). The martyrs are "partners with Christ " (M.p.6:2). It is honor to be with the martyrs (Ph.p1). There is a clear distinction between worshiping Jesus and loving the martyrs "…For we worship this one who is the son of God, but we love the martyrs as disciples and imitators of the Lord" (M.p.17:3). Also, "we don't praise those who hand them-selves over, since this is not what the gospel teaches" (M.p.4)
3- Serving God:
"For eighty- six years I have served Him, and He has done me no wrong…" (M.p.9:3), this sentence is considered as the most famous sentence by Polycarp . It shows how he spent his life serving God. It is very important to "serve the Lord in fear" (Ph.p.2) and "with all reverence… as He has commanded us…" (Ph.p.6)
4- Studying the Bible:
This characteristic can be noticed from the number of the Biblical quotations that Polycarp quoted in his epistle to the Philippians. He quoted more than 38 quotations; some of them are in a direct way while the others are indirect. Also, Polycarp advised the Philippians to "study carefully" (Ph.p.3) the epistle which Paul wrote to them. And he trusted "that they are well versed in the Sacred Scriptures" (Ph.p.12)
5- Praying and fasting:
We have to be "watching unto prayer… and persevering in fasting…" (Ph.p.7). Also, we have to pray for all the saints and for the rulers (Ph.p.12). Praying for the enemies and for those who hate us can make us "Perfect in Him" (Ph.p.12). Polycarp lived the life of prayer. In the days before his martyrdom, he spent "night and day doing nothing but pray for everyone…" (M.p.5:1). When they came to take him, "He asked them for an hour to pray without being disturbed" (M.p.7:2). Even when he was in the stadium, minutes before his death, he was "looking up into heaven" (M.p.14:1) and praying.
6- Spiritual warfare:
The devil tries to force the Christians to deny Jesus to be able to flee from the martyrdom. He "might force them to make a denial through continuous torment" (M.p.2:4). The devil is the "jealous and envious Evil One, the enemy of the race of the upright" (M.p.17: 1).
7- Giving:
8- The mystical life[17] and the supernatural wonders and signs:
Three days before Polycarp was arrested "while praying, he had a vision" and he gave those who were with him the interpretation (M.p.5:2), "He said prophetically…I must be burned alive" (M.p.12:3). While he was praying, the grace of God filled him (M.p.7:3). And when he entered the stadium where he martyred "a voice came to him from heaven: Be strong Polycarp and be a man" (M.p.9:1). When he was talking in the stadium "he was filled with courage and joy, and his face was full of grace" (M.p.12:1). Also, it is mentioned in the text[18] that "on the day and hour that Polycarp was martyred in Smyrna Polycarp has been martyred."
9- The Eschatological belief:
There is a "resurrection of eternal life in both soul and body" (M.p.14:2). Christ will Judge the living and the dead. (Ph.p.2). "we must all appear at the judgment-seat of Christ, and must every one give an account of himself" (Ph.p.6). The martyrs of Christ "kept their eyes on the goal of escaping the fire that is eternal" (M.p.2:3). This fire is "the fire of the coming judgment and eternal torment" (M.p.11:2). By their martyrdom "in one hour purchasing for themselves eternal life" (M.p.2:3). And their resurrection will be "in the immortality of the Holy Spirit" (M.p.14:2). They will gain "the crown of immortality" (M.p.17:1, 19:2).
10- The Church:
The church of God Philippi many commands to advise different kinds of people. He advised wives, widows, deacons, younger men and the virgins (Ph.p.4, 5). Also, Polycarp was thinking about the church, and was praying for the church, as a "universal church" (M. Intro.
11- Relationship with the rulers: We have to honor the rulers (M.p.10:2) and pray for them (Ph.p.12).
12- Clear belief in Trinity[19]: The texts show a very clear belief in Trinity (M.p.14:1, 2, p.22:1, 3).
2- The characteristics of Christian Piety due to St. Macarius
Through the analytical reading for the selected eight homilies by St. Macarius
1. Restoration of the Devine Image:
Restoration of the Devine image can be obtained in this life, at least in a primitive way, by the work of the Holy Spirit, so the souls can "regaining its proper nature" (17:3). When Adam was in this Devine image, the Word Himself was his clothing and he had an "outward glory with him" (12:6, 7). The Christians who obtain this heavenly raiment now, in this age, clothed their souls; the same raiment will clothed their bodies (glorification) in the coming age (32:2).
2. Deification and Christian Perfection:
Christian perfection, deification (), or communion with the heavenly nature (32:6) is the aim of the Christian life. Perfect Christians are those "who have permitted…to come very near the King", they are "sons, and lords, and gods" (17:1). Some times, Macarius called them saints who are cleaned and sanctified in the inner man ().
Loving God seems to be the first step to experience the Christian perfection. If a man loves God and gives himself to God, this man can reach the pure love, pure prayer and all what he does may be purely done (15:22). The purity of the heart can be gained through only one way; through Him who was crucified for us (17:15). According to Macarius, the incarnation of the Word is the cause of humans' deification. Because of the incarnation, the heavenly Spirit entered in the humanity and brought Adam "into combination with the God-head" (11:9). In Christ , the humanity can be deified because it is given to be "partakers of the Spirit of Christ " (15:4) and in "His substance" ().
The Apostles were being perfect (17:7). The Christian perfection is gained "bit by bit" (15:7) and the work of cleansing should be done "little by little" (17:11). Those perfect Christians may be excluded from this kind of life, if they despite the Grace of the Spirit (15:4). The main purpose for the Bible is to teach us to be "partakers of the divine nature" (39).
3. The mystical life and the supernatural wonders and sings:
In homily 48, Macarius wrote to the monks about the divine healing. Christ is the "only true physician and healer". The monk has to believe that Christ can heal his body as He healed his soul. This is the true belief. The "earthly physicians" are for "those who could not yet entrust themselves wholly to God".
4. The personal experience with the Holy Spirit:
To receive "The gift of the Spirit", we have to raise our eyes for the heavenly things (11:6). Also, we have to love God, leave all things and preserve in prayer. When we do these things, the Holy Ghost begins to teach us the secrets (12:17). The power of the Holy Spirit is working like a fire, Macarius called this power "heavenly fire of the Godhead" and "Divine fire" (11:1, 2). This Divine fire has two main works inside the faithful souls. The first work is belonging to this age. In this age the fire forms, in secret, the "heavenly image upon their humanity" (11:2). The heavenly fire forms this image by clearing off the thorns and sanctifying the soul (). The Divine fire's second work is belonging to the coming age. In the coming age the fire will cause the resurrection (11:1).
5. Spiritual warfare:
"A Christian has a twofold warfare set before him, an inward and outward…" (21: Intro.). The outward warfare is visible, in this kind of warfare; the Christian has to fight to not be bound down by the affairs of this life or by the love of the world (21:2). According to Macarius, to sell what we have and distribute to the poor is a very effective way to win this kind of wars (11:7). About the inward warfare, it is an invisible warfare. This invisible warfare has two directions. The first is against "the spirits of wickedness themselves" (21:1). And the second is against the indwelling evil which inside the heart, every Christian has "to fight" against this evil (15:24). This indwelling evil produces evil thoughts. Every one has to discover these thoughts. The Holy Spirit is the "Divine Lamp" who helps us to discern these thoughts and to "win the battle" (11:3).
6. The Eschatological belief:
"In the resurrection all the members (of the body) will raised up" (). For the Christian the fire of the Godhead will cause this resurrection (11:1).Christ will Judge all in "the day of judgment". Some will go to be with Him and some will go to the "eternal fire"(). As the body of the Lord was glorified on the mountain of transfiguration, the bodies of the saints will glorify and will shine like lightning (). "Christians will reign to ages without end with Christ " (). Because He calls us to "a holy city which is ever at peace" and to "the life that never dies" ()
7. Praying and fasting:
When we love God with all of our souls, we can experience the "Pure prayer" (). The pure prayer is this prayer when the mind "wholly occupied with the Lord" (). In this kind of prayer the mind enters into rest, and may experience vision and knows the Divine mysteries (). This level of prayer seems to be, according to Macarius, a heavenly gift "a gift of prayer" (17:5). By praying and fasting with faith, we will be able to fight and have victory in our battles (21:5).
8. Giving: Giving is very important according to St. Macarius
9. Using the Scripture:
10. Clear belief in Trinity: All of the selected homilies' ends show a very clear belief in Trinity; Father, Son and Holy Spirit.
3- Similarities and differences:
a- Similarities:
By comparing the two types of Christian Piety, it can be noticed that there are some characteristics which are the same due to St Polycarp and due to St. Macarius Christ can be considered as two examples for this kind of developing characteristics. These developments will be discussed in the last part of this research.
b- Differences:
i. The focus of the two types of Piety :
The type of Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp St. Macarius Polycarp . But it is occurred rarely in the fifty Homilies[23]. In the selected eight homilies, we can find a very significant definition that Macarius gave for the church. Macarius mentioned in homily 12 that "the word (church) is used of the individual soul, as well as of many; for the soul gathers together all her faculties and is thus a church to God" (12:15). This definition reflects the focus of this kind of Piety, as a personal focus, even with the issue of the church.
ii. How to understand the aim of the spiritual warfare:
The spiritual warfare also can be considered as an issue which reflects these different perspectives. According to the texts belonging to Polycarp , the aim of the spiritual warfare is to make the Christians deny Christ , to escape from the martyrdom. Every Christian has to win this warfare not only to keep his faith (personal focus), but also to help the other Christians to continue keeping their faith (church focus). Polycarp won the battle, did not deny Jesus and martyred to give an example which helps the whole church to follow his footsteps. According to Macarius, the spiritual warfare focuses on the personal experience. The Satan aims to prevent the Christian from reaching the Christian perfection.
iii. The peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural signs:
According to the two texts belonging to Polycarp , Martyrdom seems to be the peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural wonders and signs. There isn't any mention for this kind of experience in the epistle to the Philippians. Only, in Martyrdom of Polycarp, this kind of experience can be found. According to Macarius, this kind of experience occurs in the regular life of the perfect Christians. The prayer life seems to be the peak of the Christian experience for the supernatural wonders and signs. Visions, being in the spiritual realm, mystic experiences and divine healing are factors which appear many times in Macarius' homilies.
4- Developments:
a- From Imitation: to Restoration of the Divine image:
As shown previously, Imitation is one of the main characteristics of Christian Piety according to Polycarp . Due to Martyrdom of Polycarp and due to his epistle to the Philippians, imitation of Christ or imitation of martyrs and disciples can be fulfilled by following their type of life. In other words, the process of imitation can be defined as a process which is occurred when a Christian lives due to the example of Christ or martyrs. When a Christian lives and acts like Christ , he becomes an imitator of Christ . This kind of imitation can be found even in the details of the martyrdom.
Surely, Polycarp 's type of imitation is a Biblical type which Macarius also kept it. Although Macarius kept this type, he understood the way to be an imitator in a different way. For Macarius, the process of being imitator of Christ is not only by living in diligence to follow Christ 's way of life, but also it is a mystical process. In this mystical process the soul restores the heavenly image by being in a deep mystical relation with the bridegroom. This mystical process is occurred by the work of the Holy Spirit who copies and restores the heavenly image. By restoring this first heavenly image, the soul becomes like Christ , so the soul will act and live like Him. Briefly, Polycarp 's type can be summarized in "To act and live like Christ will make you an imitator of Christ ". Macarius' type developed in what can be summarized in "The Holy spirit makes you an imitator of Christ by copying Christ 's image on you in the mystic relation, so you can act like Christ ".
b- From believing in the coming age: to taste the coming age now:
As shown previously, the eschatological belief is one of the main characteristics of Christian Piety according to both, Polycarp and Macarius. Macarius, in addition to the common eschatological belief, wrote that the perfect Christians can taste from now the coming age. He wrote that "these men even now are caught away into that age, and are taken captive, and behold all the beauties and the wonders that are done there" (17:4). The perfect Christians live, even in this word, as they already "crowned and reigning" (17:2). Also, in this life, the Christian can taste "Christ 's judgment seat", by entering the presence of God to judge their life continually.
Conclusion:
The aim of this research was to follow the characteristics of the Christian Piety according to St. Polycarp St. Macarius Christ -" (Ephesians ).
Bibliography
Ehrman, Bart D. trans . The Apostolic Fathers. Loeb Classical Library. 2 vols. Cambridge , MA
Moyer, Elgin Chicago
[1] Elgin S. Moyer, Great leaders of the Christian Church
[2] Elgin S. Moyer is an honored teacher of Church History in Moody Bible Institute in Chicago
[3] Bart D. Ehrman Loeb Classical Library. 2 vols. (Cambridge , MA
[4] "The Epistle of Polycarp to the Philippians" Microsoft, Christian Classics Ethereal Library, The Apostolic Fathers, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.html
[5] St. Macarius Arthur James Mason St. Macarius
[6] In the English version, each homily begins by brief but doesn't have any title. In the Arabic version, each homily begins with the same brief with addition title.
[7] Homily 11 is titled in the Arabic version "The fire of the Spirit- Christ
[11] Homily 21 is titled in the Arabic version "Spiritual warfare"
[12] Homily 32 is titled in the Arabic version "The cloth of Glory now and in the Resurrection"
[17] "The Christian mystical life" can be defined as a special experience occurred when the soul enters in a very real sense of union with God. The reality of this sense of union with God is beyond the physical sense. Supernatural signs can be occurred in this kind of experience.
[19] It is very important for the Christians in the Middle East to affirm that the Early Fathers, from the first century, had a clear belief in Trinity.
[21] To have an authority on the creatures, especially the wild animals, is considered as a characteristic of the Christian Piety according to the Desert Fathers.
[22] It is significant that this concept continued to occur with the same style in the monastery of St. Macarius Father Matthew the Poor, the last chief of the monastery sold every thing he had and distributed to the poor.
[23] In the Arabic version, there is an appendix which shows that the number of using of the word "church" in the fifty homilies is 21. And by studying these 21 texts, it is noticed that most of them are not talking about issues in the church. Most of them are Eschatological and some are taking about the soul as a church.
By: Tharwat Maher
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| The Monastery of St. Macarius the Great at Wadi n’Natrun |
Wadi n’Natrun and the origins of Monasticism
a. The geographical location:
Wadi n’Natrun, in Arabic Wadi al-Natroun, also known as Scetis[1], is a valley about twenty-two miles long and five miles wide. In this valley, there are about eight salty lakes. These lakes contain varying quantities of Chloride and Sodium Carbonate[2]. Wadi n’Natrun is located in the Egyptian Great Western Desert , west of the Nile . The valley runs between two sides of undulating hills. These hills slope down to the sandy valley which is seventy to eighty feet below the level of the Mediterranean Sea at Alexandria
b. The historical context:
Wadi n’Natrun has a long History; Pharaonic and Christian. Otto Meinardus[4] wrote about the evidences that lead us to suppose that this region was considered sacred around the year 2000 B.C. Also, according to the Coptic tradition, the Holy Family visited Wadi n’Natrun during their flight into Egypt
After about three centuries of this blessed visit, Wadi n’Natrun became one of the three basic ascetic communities in the Egyptian Great Western Desert
c. Abba Macarius and the founding of the monastic community in Wadi n’Natrun:
Abba Macarius the great (300- 390), in the sources, is called St. Macarius the Egyptian to distinguish him from his namesake, Macarius the Alexandrian. The name Macarius means "blessed"[11]. St. Macarius the great was born in Jijber[12] around the year 300. Before becoming a monk, he was a camel driver and a gatherer of Natroun. Around the year 330, Macarius went to Wadi n’Natrun where he first lived his ascetic life alone. Then this kind of life began to attract disciples and a small community formed.[13]
St. Macarius visited St. Antony[14] twice. In the first visit, St. Antony taught Macarius his monastic tradition. And in the second, Antony
d. The four monasteries of Wadi n’Natrun: Monastery of al-Baramus, Monastery of St. Macarius, Monastery of Abba Bishoi and Monastery of al-Surian
During the life of Abba Macarius, there were four ascetic communities raised in Wadi n’Natrun.[19] The places of these ascetic communities are the contemporary four monasteries in Scetis. First, around the year 340, Abba Macarius himself founded the first community in the place of the monastery of al-Baramus.[20] Also, around the year 360, he founded the second in the place of the Monastery of St. Macarius.[21] Then, his disciples, Abba Bishoi and Abba John the little, founded the other two ascetic communities. Abba Bishoi founded his ascetic community in the place of the Monastery of Abba Bishoi. And Abba John the little founded his ascetic community in the place of the Monastery of al-Surian.[22] Among these four monasteries, the Monastery of St. Macarius represents a very significant role in the monastic history. Abba Macarius spent the rest of his life with his ascetic community in the place of this monastery.
e. The significant role of the Monastery of St. Macarius:
One of the reasons that gave Wadi n’Natrun its importance is the significant role of the Monastery of St. Macarius in the Christian history. After the Council of Chalcedon[23], the whole tradition of the school of Alexandria
f. A brief about the insights which the researcher gained from many visits to the Monastery of St. Macarius in Wadi n’Natrun:
The great insight was to understand that Church History is a living history. In his classical book "Great leaders of the Christian church", Moyer[30] wrote: “Church History can be and should be read as a story for that is exactly what it is.”[31] A visit to Wadi n’Natrun, especially to the Monastery of St. Macarius, can affirm this fact in a very clear way. The visitor can feel the flavor of the ancient centuries mixed with a very mature contemporary ascetic life. Also, the mature architectural revival stands as a witness for the mature spiritual revival. The visitor can easily understand that without a mature spiritual sense, this architectural revival could not be existed.
Bibliography:
Badr, Habib, Sa’ad Salim, and Joseph Abu Nahra. Christianity: A History in the Middle East, trans. George Sabrs, Nuha Jurayj, and Najla Salman Prothro. Beirut : Middle East Council of Churches, 2001.
Chitty, Derwas. The Desert City Crestwood , New York
Harmless, William. Desert Fathers: an introduction to the literature of the Early Monasticism. Oxford , New York : Oxford University
Mattá al-Miskīn. Coptic Monasticism. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1972.
________. The Monastery of St. Macarius: A Short History. Wadi Al-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1984.
Meinardus, Otto. Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Desert Cairo : The American University in Cairo Press, 1961.
Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery. Our Father Matthew the Poor: A detailed biography. Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 2008.
Moyer, Elgin S. Great leaders of the Christian Church. Chicago : Moody Press, 1951.
Vivian, Tim. St. Macarius the Spiritbearer: Coptic texts relating to Saint Macarius the Great. Crestwood , New York
[1] There are two origins for defining the name “Scetis”. The first origin is Greek. According to this Greek origin, the name “Scetis” is derived from the Greek term “Σκήτις” which means “a place for worship”. The second origin is Coptic. According to this Coptic origin, the name “Scetis” is derived from the Coptic term “Shi-hêt” which means “to weigh the heart”. From: Mattá al-Miskīn, Coptic Monasticism (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 2006), 208-210.
[2] The Arabic pronunciation of Sodium Carbonate is “Natroun”, which is the Arabic name of the valley.
[3] Otto Meinardus, Monks and Monasteries of the Egyptian Desert (Cairo: The American University in Cairo Press, 1961), 118-121 and William Harmless, S.J., Desert Christians: An introduction to the literature of early monasticism (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004), 174.
[4]Otto Friedrich August Meinardus was a German Coptologist and pastor (1925-2005), who wrote numerous books and articles about Coptic Christianity in Egypt Hamburg Hamburg , London , St Louis , Chicago , and at Harvard University , Boston , where he obtained his PhD. Dr. Meinardus was a professor at the American University in Cairo (AUC) from 1956 till 1968, and pastor of the Maadi Community Church (MCC) in Cairo
[6] Mattá al-Miskīn, 171.
[7] Derwas J. Chitty, The Desert City
[8] St. Amoun (290- 347) went first to Nitria sometime between 325 and 330 to live alone his ascetic life. He soon attracted disciples and Nitria would rapidly grow into one of the great centers of Egyptian monasticism. Then, the number of monks in Nitria increased, so some of them preferred to move to another place. St. Antony helped St. Amoun to find another place. Finally, St. Amoun founded Kellia, which means “The cells”, located twelve miles western south from Nitria. The ascetic community in Kellia was considered as an extension to the ascetic community in Nitria. From: William Harmless, S.J., 279-282 and Mattá al-Miskīn, 171.
[9] Mattá al-Miskīn, 180.
[10] Mattá al-Miskīn, 193.
[11]William Harmless, S.J., 194.
[12]Jijber is a village in the southwest portion of the Nile delta, now it is called Shabshir.
[13]Tim Vivian, Saint Macarius the Spiritbearer: Coptic texts relating to Saint Macarius the Great (Crestwood , New York
[14]Anthony the Great (c 251–356) is considered as the Father of all monks. He is considered also as the founder of Monasticism. His biography by Athanasius of Alexandria helped to spread the concept of monasticism, particularly in Western Europe through Latin translations.
[15] Mattá al-Miskīn, 50.
[16] Tim Vivian, 176
[17] Matthew the Poor mentioned in his book "Coptic Monasticism", p.119, that in the Coptic scroll, Sarapion wrote that Macarius lived 97 years. If this information is accurate, the year of his death will shifted to be 397 instead of 300.
[20] Ibid, 213 and Otto Meinardus, 126.
[21] Ibid, 225, 226.
[22] Ibid, 227-236.
[23] The Council of Chalcedon was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon
[24] Mattá al-Miskīn, The Monastery of St. Macarius: A Short History (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 1984), 13.
[25] Otto Meinardus, 168.
[27] Stereos Argiriro, “The Christians in the first Ottoman Era” in Badr, Habib, Sa’ad Salim, and Joseph Abu Nahra. Christianity: A History in the Middle East, trans. George Sabrs, Nuha Jurayj, and Najla Salman Prothro (Beirut: Middle East Council of Churches, 2001), 675.
[28] Father Matthew the Poor (1919- 2006): was an Egyptian Coptic Orthodox monk and a spiritual father of 130 monks in the Monastery of St. Macarius. He is also a renowned Orthodox theologian and author. Father Matthew the Poor was born on September 20, 1919, in Banha. He graduated as a pharmacist from Cairo University
[29]Monks of St. Macarius' Monastery, Our Father Matthew the Poor: A detailed Biography (Wadi El-Natroun: St. Macarius' Monastery Press, 2008)
[30] Elgin S. Moyer was an honored teacher of Church History in Moody Bible Institute in Chicago
By: Tharwat Maher, PhD, Regent University, VA
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